AP US Government and Politics
Advanced Placement US Government and Politics aligned with the College Board CED: five units covering the constitutional foundations of American democracy, interactions among the three branches of government and the bureaucracy, civil liberties and civil rights, political ideologies and beliefs, and political participation through elections, parties, interest groups, and the media.
Ämne: Samhällskunskap · Nivå: Gymnasium (16–19) · 445 kort
Innehåll
- The Declaration of Independence (1776), drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, articulates natural rights philosophy: 'life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,' government by consent of the governed, and the right of the people to alter or abolish a tyrannical government.
- Natural rights are rights inherent to all humans by virtue of being human (not granted by government). John Locke's social contract theory — life, liberty, and property — directly shaped Jefferson's Declaration.
- Popular sovereignty is the principle that political power flows from the people — 'We the People' in the Constitution's preamble. It justifies elections, referenda, and constitutional amendments.
- Republicanism (small-r) is rule by elected representatives accountable to the people. Madison distinguished a republic from a pure democracy in Federalist 10, arguing that representation refines public passions and protects minority rights.
- Participatory democracy emphasizes broad citizen involvement in politics and decision-making — town halls, referenda, ballot initiatives. Examples: New England town meetings, California propositions.
- Pluralist democracy emphasizes group-based activism by competing interest groups influencing policy. Theory: many groups compete, no single group dominates, and compromise produces policy in the public interest.
- Elite democracy emphasizes limited participation in politics and government — the educated, wealthy, or expert class is best suited to govern. Critics argue the Electoral College and Senate reflect elite-democratic features.
- The Articles of Confederation (ratified 1781) was the first US national government — a weak confederation in which states retained sovereignty. Congress could not tax, raise an army, or regulate commerce; amendment required unanimous consent.
- Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787) was an armed uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays. It exposed the inability of the Articles' government to maintain order and accelerated the call for a Constitutional Convention.
- The Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia in summer 1787. Delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island absent) replaced rather than revised the Articles. James Madison's notes are the primary record; George Washington presided.
- The Virginia Plan (Madison/Randolph) proposed a strong national government with a bicameral legislature where both chambers' seats were apportioned by population — favored by large states.
- The New Jersey Plan (Paterson) proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation per state — favored by small states fearing domination by populous ones.
- The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) created the bicameral Congress: the House apportioned by population (Virginia Plan) and the Senate with equal state representation — two senators each (New Jersey Plan).
- The Three-Fifths Compromise counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for purposes of congressional representation and direct taxation. It augmented southern political power and was nullified by the 13th and 14th Amendments after the Civil War.
- The Compromise on the Importation of Slaves prohibited Congress from banning the international slave trade until 1808. The trade was abolished as soon as Congress could act (1808), but domestic slavery and the interstate slave trade persisted until the 13th Amendment (1865).
- The Electoral College was created as a compromise between direct popular election and selection by Congress. Each state's electors equal its total congressional representation (House + Senate); 270 of 538 wins the presidency.
- Federalists supported ratification of the Constitution and a strong national government. Key leaders: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay — authors of The Federalist Papers (1787–1788) writing as 'Publius.'
- Anti-Federalists opposed ratification, fearing a tyrannical central government and demanding a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties. Brutus 1 (likely Robert Yates) argued that a large republic could not preserve liberty.
- Federalist 10 (Madison) argues that a large republic is the best cure for the 'mischiefs of faction.' Factions cannot be eliminated without destroying liberty, so they must be controlled — a large diverse republic dilutes any single faction's power.
- Madison's faction in Federalist 10 is 'a number of citizens... united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.'
- Federalist 51 (Madison) defends separation of powers and checks and balances: 'Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.' Each branch must have constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachment by the others.
- Federalist 51 famously observes that 'if men were angels, no government would be necessary,' justifying the need for both external (separation of powers) and internal (popular sovereignty) controls on government.
- Brutus 1 argues that the proposed Constitution creates too consolidated a government over too vast a territory. He insists republican government can only flourish in small, homogeneous polities where rulers know the ruled.
- Brutus 1 specifically warns about the Necessary and Proper Clause and the Supremacy Clause, predicting they would gradually consolidate power in the national government at the expense of the states — a prophecy partially borne out by McCulloch v. Maryland.
- The Constitution was ratified June 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to approve. It went into effect March 4, 1789. North Carolina (1789) and Rhode Island (1790) ratified last.
- Separation of powers divides federal authority among three branches: legislative (Article I, Congress makes laws), executive (Article II, President enforces laws), and judicial (Article III, courts interpret laws). Originated with Montesquieu.
- Checks and balances give each branch tools to constrain the others: Congress can override vetoes (2/3), impeach, and confirm appointments; the President can veto and pardon; the Court can declare laws unconstitutional (judicial review).
- Federalism is the division of power between a national government and subnational governments (states). The US has a constitutionally guaranteed federal system with both layers possessing some sovereign powers.
- Enumerated (expressed) powers are powers explicitly granted to the federal government in the Constitution — e.g., coin money, declare war, regulate interstate commerce, raise armies (Article I, Section 8).
- Implied powers are powers Congress exercises through the Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 18) even though not specifically listed — e.g., the national bank, federal minimum wage, federal drug laws.
- Reserved powers are powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states, reserved to states and the people by the 10th Amendment — e.g., education, marriage law, intrastate commerce, criminal law.
- Concurrent powers are exercised by both federal and state governments — e.g., taxing, borrowing money, building roads, establishing courts, making and enforcing laws.
- The Supremacy Clause (Article VI) makes the Constitution, federal laws, and US treaties the 'supreme Law of the Land,' binding state judges and overriding conflicting state law.
- The Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause) gives Congress power to make all laws 'necessary and proper' to execute its enumerated powers. It is the constitutional basis for implied powers and for much expansion of federal authority since the 1930s.
- The Commerce Clause (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) gives Congress power to regulate commerce 'among the several States.' Modern interpretations have allowed federal regulation of virtually all economic activity affecting interstate commerce.
- The 10th Amendment reserves to the states (or the people) all powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states. It is the textual anchor for states' rights arguments.
- The 14th Amendment (1868) extends national power over states by prohibiting states from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process or denying equal protection of the laws — the foundation for the incorporation doctrine.
- McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) upheld Congress's power to charter a national bank under the Necessary and Proper Clause and ruled Maryland could not tax the federal institution. Chief Justice John Marshall: 'the power to tax involves the power to destroy.'
- United States v. Lopez (1995) struck down the Gun-Free School Zones Act, ruling that gun possession near schools had no substantial effect on interstate commerce. First major modern decision limiting Congress's Commerce Clause authority.
- Dual federalism (1789–c.1937) viewed federal and state authority as separate spheres — the 'layer cake' model. National powers were narrowly construed; states governed most domestic matters.
- Cooperative federalism (c.1937–present) views the levels as 'marble cake' — federal and state authorities intertwined in delivering most services through grants, mandates, and joint programs (e.g., Medicaid, highways, K–12 education).
- Categorical grants give states federal money for specific purposes with strict conditions (e.g., Head Start). They limit state discretion and are the most common type of federal grant.
- Block grants give states federal money for broad purposes (e.g., community development, welfare via TANF) with substantial flexibility. Preferred by states and conservatives who favor decentralization.
- A mandate is a federal requirement imposed on states or localities. An unfunded mandate (e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act compliance) imposes costs without providing federal funds; the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (1995) limits such impositions.
- Devolution is the transfer of policy responsibilities from the federal government to state or local governments. Welfare Reform (1996) replaced AFDC with TANF block grants, a major devolutionary moment in modern federalism.
- The Constitution can be amended by a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress (or a convention called by 2/3 of states) and ratification by 3/4 of state legislatures (or state conventions). 27 amendments in 235 years — a deliberately difficult bar.
- The Bill of Rights — the first 10 amendments — was ratified in 1791. It was added at Anti-Federalists' insistence to protect individual liberties against the new federal government.
- Article I establishes the legislative branch — a bicameral Congress with the House of Representatives (435 members, 2-year terms) and the Senate (100 members, 6-year terms). Congress is the most explicitly empowered branch.
- House members must be 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of the state they represent. Senators must be 30, citizens for 9 years, and residents of their state. Reapportionment among states follows each decennial Census.
- The Speaker of the House is elected by House members (typically the majority party leader). Powers: schedules floor votes, assigns bills to committees, appoints committee chairs, second in presidential succession after the Vice President.